Marriage

 

There have been a number of significant changes to marriage in recent years.

Fewer people are marrying

There are more re-marriages. In 2005, 4 out of 10 marriages were remarriages. For many people it has been argued therefore, that there has been a trend to serial monogamy – a pattern of marriage – divorce – remarriage.

People are marrying later. The average age of first marriages rose by seven years between 1971 and 2005.

Couples are less likely to marry in church. In 1981 60% were weddings were religious, but this had had fallen to

35% by 2005.

Reasons for changing patterns of marriages:

Changing attitudes to marriage.

o There is less pressure to marry and more freedom for the individual to choose the type of relationships they want. Now, the couples quality of relationship is more important than its legal status

Secularisation

o As the churches influence declines, people feel freer not to marry, but just cohabit.

Declining stigma attached to alternatives

o Societal approval of cohabitation, remaining single and having children outside of marriage.

Changes in the position of women.

o With better career and educational prospects, women are now less economically dependent on men, giving them freedom to remain single.

Fear of divorce.

o With rising divorce rates, many people don’t get married due to a fear of it ending in divorce. Reasons for other changes in patterns of marriage include:

- Remarriages - which are predominantly due to the rise in the number of divorces.

- Age on marrying – The age at which couples marry is rising, due to longer in education and wanting a career first or just cohabiting first

- Couples are less likely to marry in church due to secularisation and many churches refuse to marry divorcees.

 

However, despite a fall in the numbers marrying for the first time, the institution of marriage remains popular. It is seen as an ‘ideal’ that many aspire to. For example, the British Social Attitudes Survey (2000) found that only 9% agreed with the view that there is no point getting married – it is only a piece of paper, while 74% disagreed.

 

As marriage decreases, other family types emerge, such as cohabitation, same-sex relationships, one person households and people who are LATs (Living Apart Together).

 

Activity: Consider the following:

1) Should we be concerned about marriage rates falling?

2) What are the alternatives to marriage? Are they a real threat to marriage?

3) What do you think is the greatest explanation for falling marriage rates? Explain your decision.

 

 

Divorce

Divorce is a major cause of changing family patterns and greater family diversity. Since the 1960s there has been a great increase in the number of divorces in the UK. The number of divorces doubled between 1961 and 1969, and doubled again by 1972. Numbers stood at 157,000 in 2001 – about six times higher than in 1961. About 7 out of every 10 petitions now come from women.

 

Why is a divorce on the increase?

 

Changes in the law - Gradually change in the law have made divorce easier and there have been three kinds of changes in the law. These have:

- Equalized the grounds for divorce between the sexes (1923),

- The introduction of the Divorce Reform Act in 1969 which widened the grounds for divorce to an

‘irretrievable breakdown’. This breakdown could be the sole reason for the divorce and meant that no longer did there have to be a ‘guilty party’ to file for divorce.

- The introduction of legal aid in 1949, making divorce cheaper.

 

These laws and in particular the 1969 act, were followed by a rapid rise in divorce. However, couples can also separate to end their marriage (the married couple end their marriage by living in separate residence, but remain legally married), through desertion where one partner leaves the other but the couple remain legally married and by staying in ‘empty shell marriages’ (the couple live together and remain legally married, but their marriage exists in name only).

 

Declining stigma and changing attitudes - In the past divorce has been stigmatised. For example, churches condemned divorce and often refused to conduct marriage services involving divorcees. However, attitudes have changed and there is a less social stigma associated with divorce. Cockett and Tripp (1994) suggest divorce is becoming more acceptable and ‘normalised’.

Secularisation - Secularisation refers to the decline in the influence of religion in society. Many sociologists

argue that religion is losing its influence and the traditional opposition of the churches to divorce, is carrying less weight. At the same time, many churches are softening their views on divorce.

Rising expectations - Functionalists such as Fletcher, argue that people place higher expectation on marriage and this is a major cause of rising divorce rates. People expect more of love and marriage, which has resulted in unstable relationships. Functionalists take a positive view of this as they believe this points to the continuing importance of marriage. Most adults marry and therefore, marriage is not being rejected as an institution. However, Feminists are critical of this view, arguing that the oppression of women within the family is the main cause of marital conflict and divorce. Feminists believe women’s dissatisfaction with patriarchy has meant that by 2000, 70% of divorces were brought by women

Changes in the position of women - Women’s increased willingness to seek divorce is due to their improved economic position– there is a greater chance of economic independence, so women are freer to end an unsatisfactory marriage. Women are more likely to be in paid work (rose from 47% 1959 to 70% in 2005). The Equal Pay Act and Sex

Discrimination Act have narrowed the pay gap, girls have had greater success in education, giving them better paid jobs and welfare benefits mean women are no longer remaining financially dependent.

 

Also, the influence of the feminist movement has affected the divorce rate. It has highlighted what was wrong with the patriarchal marriage. Diana Gittins’ (1993) research showed that divorced men are more likely to remarry, than divorced women. For Gittins, this is because women are more disillusioned with marriage. In the

1940’s around 2/3rds of divorce petitions were brought by husbands. By 2000 this was reversed, with 70% of divorces being brought by women (Population Trends, 2000). While there has been big improvements in women’s position in the public sphere, feminists such as Dunscombe and Marsden argue that marriage remains patriarchal which men benefiting from women’s ‘triple shift’ (paid work, domestic work and emotion work).

 

Modernity and individualisation - Sociologists such as Beck and Giddens argue that in modern society, traditional norms such as staying with the same partner for life, lost their hold over individuals As a result each individual becomes free to pursue his / her own self-interest. This view has become known as the individualisation thesis. Relationships are more fragile, because individuals are unwilling to remain with a partner if the relationship fails to deliver personal fulfilment. Instead, they seek what Giddens calls the ‘pure relationship’. Giddens (1992) explains these rising expectations by suggesting there has been a trend to

‘confluent love’. This is love focused on intimacy, closeness and emotion as the basis of relationships rather than

feelings of duty and obligation. Therefore when couples become dissatisfied by the absence of romance and intimacy in their relationship, they are more likely to opt out of the marriage, seeking personal fulfilment.

Who divorces?

 

Age – In general, the earlier the age of marriage, the more likely the couple are to divorce. For women under 20, when they married in the late 1980s, 24% had separated within 5 years compared with 8% who married between the ages of 25 and 29. Reasons for this are that the bride is more likely to be pregnant, due to money problems, a lack of experience in choosing a suitable partner, a lack of awareness of the demands on marriage and also, as the couple are more likely to grow apart.

 

Social Class – In general, the lower the class position of the husbands, the more likely the couple are to divorce. Financial problems are seen to be the main cause. Kiernan and Mueller (1999) suggest that unemployment, reliance on state benefits and low income are all associated with high divorce rates.

 

Other factors – Remarriages are more likely to end in divorce than first marriage and often if there has been an experience of a parents divorce, possible due to psychological problems and divorce being more acceptable.

 

How do the different perspectives view these changes?

 

- The New Right – divorce is undesirable because it undermines the traditional nuclear family. It creates an underclass of welfare-dependent female lone mothers.

- Feminists – see divorce as desirable because it shows that women are breaking from the oppression of the patriarchal nuclear family.

- Postmodernists and individualization thesis – see divorce as giving individuals the freedom to choose their family.

- Functionalists – Divorce is the result of people’s higher expectations of marriage today. High rates of remarriage shows people are still committed to the idea of marriage.

- Interactionists / personal life perspective– Try to understand what divorce means to the individual. We

cannot generalize about the meaning of divorce because every individual’s interpretation is different. Smart

argues that divorce has become normalized and that family life can adapt without it disintegrating or being a major social problem.

 

Cohabitation involves an unmarried couple in a sexual relationship living together. While marriage rates have declined, cohabitation rates have risen. There are now over two million cohabiting couples in Britain. This is expected to double by

2021.

 

Reasons for this increase:

 

- Decline in social stigma

- The young are more likely to accept cohabitation – 88% of 18 - 24 year olds though it was alright for a couple to live together but not get married (Social Trends, 2004).

- Increased career opportunities for women mean they have less need for the financial security of marriage.

- Secularisation – according to the 2001 Census, young people with no religion are more likely to cohabit.

 

For some couples, cohabitation is a step on the way to getting married. Chester (1985) argues that for most people cohabitation is part of a process of getting married. Many see cohabitation as a ‘trial’ marriage and tend to marry if it goes well. Most cohabiting couples tend to marry if they have children and in some cases cohabitation is a temporary phase before marriage because one or both members of the couple are awaiting a divorce. However,

cohabitation does not mean the same thing to every couple (see personal life perspective).

Same sex relationships

Stonewall (2012) estimates that about 5 – 7% of the adult population today are in a same sex relationships (although it is impossible to say this has risen due to the stigma and illegality associated with homosexuality in the past). There is evidence of increased social acceptance in opinion polls of same-sex relationships. Also the age of consent for homosexual and heterosexual relationships has been equalised and social policy, now treats all couples more equally.

For example, since 2002, cohabiting couples have had the same right to adopt as married couples. The 2004 Civil Partnerships Act gave same sex couples similar legal rights to married couples in terms of pensions, inheritance and property. Furthermore, since 2014 same sex couples have been able to marry. Weeks argues that the increased social acceptance has led to a trend in ‘chosen families’, offering the same security and stability as heterosexual families.

 

One person households

Fewer people today are living in couples. There has been an increase in the number of people living alone (3 in 10 in

2013), 40% of one person households are over 65 and by 2033, it is predicted that over 30% of the adult population will be single. The increase in separation and divorce has created more one person households, especially among men under 65 and the decline in the numbers marrying and the trend towards marrying later, also mean more

people are remaining single.

Living apart together

The British Social Attitudes survey suggests that about 1 in 10 adults are living apart together – that

is being in a significant relationship but not married or cohabiting. It has been suggested that this may reflect a trend towards less formalised relationships and instead ‘families of choice’. Research shows that both choice and constraint play a part in whether a couple lives together – some cannot afford to, whilst a minority actively choose to live apart because they want to keep their own home. Social attitudes to living apart together are favourable. A majority believe that a ‘couple do not need to live together to have a strong relationship’ while 20% saw LATS as their ideal relationship (more than the number who preferred cohabitation).

There have been some significant changes in child bearing, with women choosing other options than motherhood. For example, 4/10 children are now born outside marriage, women are having children at a far later age (27.3 years on average), women are having fewer children and more women are choosing to remain childless.

 

A number of reasons explain this, including a declining stigma attached to births outside marriage and an increase in cohabitation. Similarly, the later age at which women are having children, falling family sizes and the fact more women are remaining childless all reflect the fact that women have more options than just motherhood. Many women are seeking a career before starting a family or instead of having children at all. Reasons for the declining birth rate should also be considered here (please see your demography notes) such as a declining infant mortality rate, the view that

children are now economic liabilities, increasing child centeredness and the increasing availability of contraception.

 

Lone parent families

 

Lone parent families now make up 22% of all families with children. One child in 4 lives in a lone parent family and over

90% of these are headed by lone mothers. The number of lone parent families has risen due to the increase in divorce and separation and more recently due to the increase in the number of never married women having children. This is also linked to the decline in stigma attached to births outsides of marriage. Lone parent families tend to be female headed because of the believe that women are by nature suited to the ‘expressive’ role, courts usually give custody of children to mothers and men may be less willing than women to give up work than women.

 

The New Right thinker, Charles Murray sees the growth of long parent families resulting from an over-generous welfare state providing benefits for unmarried mothers and their children. Murray argues that this has created a ‘perverse incentive’, that is, it rewards irresponsible behaviour such as having children without being able to provide for them. Murray’s solution is simple – to abolish welfare benefits.

 

Step – Families

 

Step – families or ‘reconstituted families’, account for over 10% of all families with dependent children. Factors causing an increase in lone parents, such as divorce and separation are also responsible for the rise of step families. More children in step families are from the women’s previous relationship as children are more likely to stay with their mother following a break up. Step families are at a greater risk of poverty because there are often more children and the step

father may have to support children from a previous relationship.

 

Ethnic differences

 

Immigration since the 1950s has helped to create greater ethnic diversity and contributed to changing family patterns.

 

Black families – Black Caribbean and Black African people have a higher proportion of lone parent households. In 2012, just over half of families with dependent children, headed by a black person were lone parent families. The high rate of female headed families can be traced back to slavery but also high rates of unemployment among black males. Some Sociologists also argue it is because black women place a high value on their independence.

 

Asian families – Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Indian households tend to be larger than other ethnic groups, sometimes containing three generations, but most are in fact nuclear. Larger households are the result of the younger age profile of British Asians, since a higher proportion are in the childbearing age groups. Also, this may reflect the value placed on

the extended family in Asian cultures. Furthermore, practical consideration such as the need for assistance when

 

migrating are also important. Ballard (1982) found extended family ties provided an important source of support among

Asian migrants in the 1950s / 60s.

 

Activity

 

Knowing your concepts

 

Define the following	Illustrate with an example / an explanation of the impact of this
Secularisation
Living Apart Together
Individualisation Thesis
Normalisation of divorce
Patriarchal marriage
Social Stigma
Confluent love

 

Exam Practice

1. 1. Define the term ‘confluent love’ ( 2marks)
2. 2. Using one example, explain how changes in the law have led to an increase in divorce (2 marks).
3. 3. Outline three reasons why lone parent families are generally headed by the mother (6 marks)
4. 4. Applying material from the item and your own knowledge, evaluate Sociological contributions to our understanding of the trends in divorce in the UK since 1970 (20 marks)

Checking your understanding:

 

5. 5. Why do both Feminists and Postmodernists view increasing divorce in a positive light?
6. 6. Explain how Functionalists view increasing divorce. How does this compare/contrast to the New Right View?
7. 7. ‘Changes in the position of the women is the biggest explanation for increasing divorce rates’. Do you agree or disagree? Explain your decision.
8. 8. Identify three trends that have occurred within childbearing.
9. 9. Identify two reasons why ‘Living Apart Together’ has increased.
10. 10. Explain how immigration into Britain since the 1950s has helped to create changing family patterns in the UK.

 

Key Studies to know	Associated key concept	Explanation of their findings
Fletcher
Cockett and Tripp
Dunscombe and Marsden
Beck
Smart
Murray
Ballard
Weeks
Giddens
Chester